Al-Ashʿari (c. 874–936)

Abu al-Hasan al-Ashʿari was a pivotal Muslim theologian who founded the Ashʿari school of theology, which became one of the dominant theological schools in Sunni Islam. His thought represents a critical synthesis between rationalism and traditionalism, seeking to defend orthodox Islamic beliefs against the extreme rationalism of the Muʿtazila while still using rational arguments.

1. Background

Origin – Born in Basra, Iraq, during the Abbasid period—a time of intense theological debate.

Career – Al-Ashʿari started as a committed Muʿtazili theologian but famously renounced Muʿtazilism around the age of 40. He shifted toward a middle path between strict rationalism and literal traditionalism. He taught and wrote prolifically in Basra and Baghdad, attracting many students.

2. Education and Influences

Teachers

• Abu Ali al-Jubba'i: A leading Muʿtazili theologian under whom al-Ashʿari studied for many years. Their debates, especially over divine justice and human free will, led to al-Ashʿari’s eventual break with Muʿtazilism.

Influences

• Muʿtazili Rationalism: Al-Ashʿari’s early training under the Muʿtazila equipped him with deep knowledge of kalam (Islamic dialectical theology) and rationalist methods, which he later redirected toward defending Sunni orthodoxy.

• Early Sunni Traditionalism: He was influenced by traditionalist scholars like Ahmad ibn Hanbal, particularly in his reverence for hadith and the literal meaning of the Qur’an, though he did not adopt Hanbalite literalism wholesale.

• Greek Logic: Like other Muslim theologians of his era, al-Ashʿari used Aristotelian logic as a tool of argumentation, though selectively.

3. Main Themes of His Philosophical Thought

Reconciliation of Reason and Revelation

• Al-Ashʿari argued that human reason has limits. It is useful in defending faith but cannot grasp all divine realities independently.

• Revelation (Qur’an and Sunnah) must take precedence when reason reaches its limits.

Divine Attributes

• He affirmed God’s attributes (e.g., knowledge, power, will, speech) without likening them to creation (tashbih) or denying them (taʿtil).

• He rejected the Muʿtazili metaphorical interpretations of God’s attributes, maintaining instead a stance of bi-la kayf ("without asking how").

Creation of the Qur’an

• He opposed the Muʿtazili doctrine that the Qur’an is created, asserting instead that the Qur’an is uncreated and eternal as God’s speech.

Human Free Will and Divine Justice

• • Al-Ashʿari developed the doctrine of acquisition (kasb): Human actions are created by God but "acquired" by humans, making them responsible without limiting divine omnipotence.

  • This position mediated between Muʿtazili free will and Hanbali determinism.

Vision of God (Ru’yat Allah)

• • He defended the idea that believers will see God in the afterlife, without asking how, based on literal acceptance of Qur’anic descriptions.

Role of Kalam (Dialectical Theology)

• Unlike strict traditionalists, al-Ashʿari accepted the use of kalam to defend Islam against heresies and philosophical challenges.

Faith (Iman)

• • He held that faith includes belief in the heart and confession by the tongue, and that sin does not necessarily expel a person from Islam—rejecting both the Kharijite and Muʿtazilite positions on sinners.
    
    

4. Influence on His Generation and Beyond

In His Own Time

• Al-Ashʿari’s shift from Muʿtazilism to a rational defense of Sunni orthodoxy was controversial but ultimately successful in shaping mainstream Sunni theology.

• He attracted many students who spread his ideas, particularly in Baghdad.

On Later Generations

• His school of thought became the dominant theological method in Sunni Islam, especially in Shafi‘i and Maliki circles.

• Influenced major theologians like al-Baqillani, al-Juwayni, al-Ghazali, and Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.

• His theology was later institutionalized in centers of learning like al-Azhar and the Nizamiyya schools.

• Even today, Ashʿarism remains the theological framework for most Sunni Muslims worldwide.

5. Major Works

• Al-Lumaʿ (The Book of Sparks) – A foundational summary of Ashʿari theology, defending Sunni beliefs against Muʿtazili arguments.

• Kitab al-Ibana ʿan Usul al-Diyana (The Elucidation of the Principles of Religion) – A manifesto of his doctrinal positions after leaving the Muʿtazila.

• Maqalat al-Islamiyyin wa Ikhtilaf al-Musallin (The Doctrines of the Muslims and the Differences Among the Worshippers) – An encyclopedic survey of theological sects and their beliefs, written in an impartial tone.