Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905)

Muhammad  Abduh was an Egyptian Islamic reformer, jurist, theologian, and philosopher who played a central role in the Islamic modernist movement. A student of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, he worked to reconcile Islamic teachings with modernity, emphasizing reason, education, social reform, and moral renewal. As Grand Mufti of Egypt, he advocated reinterpretation (ijtihād) of Islamic law and a rational understanding of the Qur'an to revitalize the Muslim world in the face of colonial domination and internal decay.

1. Background

Origin – Born in Lower Egypt (Beheira Governorate), in a village near the Nile Delta during the late Ottoman period under British influence.

Career – After studying at al-Azhar University,  Abduh became an Islamic scholar, judge (qadi), teacher, and eventually Grand Mufti of Egypt (1899–1905)—the highest religious legal position in the country. He taught at al-Azhar, Dar al-ʿUlum, and Cairo University, and was involved in legal reforms and the Egyptian national movement. He also edited the influential reformist journal al-‘Urwah al-Wuthqā with al-Afghani.

2. Education and Influences

Teachers

• Jamal al-Din al-Afghani: His most important teacher and ideological mentor. Under Afghani’s guidance,  Abduh became politically engaged and was introduced to Islamic reformist thought.

• Scholars at al-Azhar: While rooted in traditional Islamic education, he grew critical of rigid scholasticism and rote learning.

Influences

• Rationalist Islamic Thinkers: Especially Ibn Rushd and Muʿtazilites, known for their emphasis on reason and ethics.

• Sufism: Early in life, he was drawn to mystical thought, which later gave way to more rationalist inclinations, though he retained its moral concerns.

• European Modernity: Influenced by Enlightenment and liberal ideals—such as constitutionalism, freedom, and public education—through his exposure during exile and travel, especially in France.

3. Main Themes of His Philosophical Thought

Reconciliation of Islam and Reason

• Abduh believed Islam is inherently rational and that its core teachings are compatible with modern science and reason.

• He rejected the notion that Muslims must choose between religion and progress.

• He asserted that Islam encourages critical thinking, social justice, and intellectual freedom.

Ijtihād (Independent Reasoning) and Legal Reform

• Abduh advocated re-opening the gates of ijtihād in Islamic jurisprudence to address contemporary needs.

• He opposed rigid taqlīd (blind imitation) of past legal schools and demanded dynamic interpretation of Shari‘a.

• He worked to modernize personal status laws (marriage, divorce, inheritance) within an Islamic framework.

Moral and Spiritual Renewal

• Abduh believed that the moral and intellectual decline of Muslims stemmed from neglecting the ethical spirit of Islam.

• He emphasized ethical monotheism, moral self-discipline, and the purifying role of religion in society.

Education and Social Reform

• Abduh championed modern public education based on both religious and scientific disciplines.

• He supported women's education, improvement of Arabic language instruction, and critical reform of al-Azhar.

• He wanted Islamic education to produce reform-minded, morally responsible individuals rather than rote memorization of texts.

Tafsir (Qur'anic Exegesis) and Theology

• Abduh initiated a new rationalist school of tafsir, emphasizing the universal moral and social teachings of the Qur’an.

• He focused on monotheism (tawhīd) as the foundation of ethics and civilization.

• He argued against superstitious or mythological interpretations of scripture, promoting a theology grounded in ethics and reason.

Anti-Colonialism and Political Reform

• Abduh though more pragmatic than Afghani, Abduh supported national sovereignty, constitutionalism, and the rule of law.

• He criticized autocracy and foreign domination, yet worked with the British colonial administration in Egypt to implement gradual reform.

• He believed Islam could provide the moral foundation for just governance and social cohesion.

4. Influence on His Generation and Beyond

In His Own Time

• Abduh is regarded as one of the leading reformers in Egypt and the wider Arab world.

• As Grand Mufti, he issued progressive fatwas that reinterpreted Islamic law in light of contemporary needs (e.g., interest-bearing loans under certain conditions).

• He reformed al-Azhar, introducing modern subjects and a new ethos of critical inquiry.

• He engaged with Christian and Jewish leaders, encouraging interfaith dialogue.

On Later Generations

• Abduh inspired the Islamic Modernist movement, which sought to integrate Islamic tradition with modern nation-building, science, and rational thought.

• Major influence on Rashid Rida, who carried forward  Abduh’s tafsir and political reformist ideas.

• Precursor to various ideological trends:

  • Liberal reformers who invoked his teachings to support secular democracy with Islamic ethics.

  • Salafi reformists who saw him as a defender of early Islam and rational purity.

  • Muslim nationalists and constitutionalists who adopted his ideas in the fight against colonial rule.

• Left a lasting legacy in modern Islamic jurisprudence, education, and theology across the Arab world, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.

5. Major Works

• Tafsir al-Manār (The Manar Commentary) – A reformist Qur’anic commentary co-authored with his student Rashid Rida, it emphasizes reason, ethics, and social reform. This tafsir offers a modern reinterpretation of the Qur’an, inspiring generations of thinkers and reformers in the contemporary Islamic world.

• Risālat al-Tawhīd (Treatise on the Unity of God) – His theological and philosophical masterpiece. Argues that belief in one God underlies justice, reason, and social progress.