Al-Razi (1149–1209)

Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Umar ibn al-Husayn al-Razi, widely known as Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, was a towering Muslim theologian, philosopher, and Qur’an commentator of the 12th century. A leading figure of the Ash‘ari school, he became famous for his sharp dialectical style, encyclopedic knowledge, and penetrating critiques of earlier philosophical and theological systems. His writings, especially in kalam (theology) and tafsir (exegesis), shaped Islamic thought for centuries and made him one of the most influential scholars of the late Islamic Golden Age.

1. Background

Origin – Al-Razi was born in Rayy (near modern-day Tehran, Iran), a major intellectual and cultural center in the Seljuk Empire.

Career – Al-Razi traveled widely through Khurasan, Transoxiana, and beyond, engaging in debates with scholars of various schools—Mu‘tazilis, Isma‘ilis, Hanbalis, and philosophers. He gained fame as both a public debater and a prolific writer. He eventually settled in Herat, where he continued his scholarship until his death.

2. Education and Influences

Teachers

• Al Razi studied under Majd al-Din al-Jili, a leading Ash‘ari theologian.

• His father, Dhiya al-Din al-Razi, a scholar and follower of al-‘Amidi, also contributed to his early training in kalam.

Influences

• Ash‘ari School: Al-Razi was a key representative of later Ash‘arism and built on its theological principles.

• Ibn Sina: Though he often critiqued Ibn Sina, al-Razi absorbed many elements of Avicennian metaphysics and psychology.

• Al-Ghazali: He followed Ghazali in affirming Sufism and critiquing excessive rationalism, but was more systematic in his philosophical approach.

• Greek philosophy: He engaged deeply with logic, metaphysics, and natural sciences from the Greek tradition, especially Aristotle.

3. Main Themes of His Philosophical Thought

Theory and Kalam

• Al-Razi’s works are marked by relentless questioning and dialectics. He often presented multiple arguments for and against a position before cautiously stating his view. 

• His theology emphasized God’s omnipotence, divine attributes, and the limits of human reason compared to divine knowledge.

Quranic Exegesis (Tafsir)

• His most famous work, Mafatih al-Ghayb (The Keys to the Unseen), also known as Tafsir al-Kabir (The Great Commentary), is one of the most comprehensive philosophical commentaries on the Quran.

• He used philosophical reasoning to interpret Quranic verses, often citing multiple viewpoints before presenting his own.

Critique of Philosophers

• Although he used their methods, al-Razi criticized Ibn Sina and the Peripatetic tradition on several issues:

  1. Eternity of the world: He strongly defended creation ex nihilo (creation out of nothing).

  2. Unity of the intellect: He rejected the notion of a shared active intellect in favor of individual soul immortality.

  3. Determinism: He emphasized divine omnipotence over philosophical determinism.

Science and Natural Philosophy

• Al-Razi also wrote on medicine, cosmology, and natural sciences, often blending them with theological concerns. 

• Al-Razi speculated on multiple worlds beyond our own, an idea centuries ahead of its time.

Epistemology and Skepticism

• Al-Razi questioned the certainty of knowledge acquired through reason alone, highlighting the fallibility of philosophical methods. 

• Al-Razi emphasized revelation as the ultimate source of truth, while still using rational tools to defend theology.

4. Influence on His Generation and Beyond

In His Own Time

• Al-Razi’s dialectical brilliance made him both admired and controversial. His critiques unsettled many opponents, from philosophers to theologians of rival schools. His reputation as a sharp debater spread across the Islamic world.

On Later Generations

• In Islamic theology: He cemented Ash‘arism as the dominant theological school, shaping later Sunni orthodoxy.

• In Qur’anic studies: His Tafsir al-Kabir became a reference point for scholars, blending rational inquiry with traditional exegesis.

• In philosophy: His critiques of Ibn Sina influenced later debates in both Islamic and Christian thought.

• In science: His engagement with cosmology and speculation about multiple worlds echoed in later discussions among Muslim and European thinkers.

5. Major Works

• Mafatih al-Ghayb (Keys to the Unseen) / al-Tafsir al-Kabir (The Great Commentary) – His magnum opus in Qur’anic exegesis, encyclopedic in scope.

• al-Mabahith al-Mashriqiyya (Eastern Investigations) – A major work on philosophy and theology.

• al-Arba‘in fi Usul al-Din (Forty Principles of Religion) – A systematic presentation of Ash‘ari theology.

• al-Matalib al-‘Aliya (The Sublime Questions) – A monumental later work addressing philosophy and theology.

• al-Mahsul fi Usul al-Fiqh – A widely studied work on principles of Islamic jurisprudence.