Miskawayh (c. 932–1030)

Abu Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ya‘qub Miskawayh was a Persian philosopher, historian, and moralist, best known for his contributions to Islamic ethics and his influential treatise Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (“Refinement of Character”). A leading intellectual of the Buyid era, he was deeply engaged with Aristotelian and Neoplatonic philosophy, blending Greek thought with Islamic teachings. His work on ethics made him one of the most important moral philosophers of the Islamic Golden Age, leaving a lasting impact on later Islamic and European intellectual traditions.

1. Background

Origin – Born in Rayy (near present-day Tehran, Iran).

Career – Worked as a secretary, librarian, and treasurer under Buyid rulers in Baghdad and Rayy. His access to large libraries and scholarly circles allowed him to develop as a philosopher and historian. Celebrated as both a philosopher and historian, he was called al-Hakim (the wise man) by contemporaries for his deep ethical insights.

2. Education and Influences

Teachers

• Studied philosophy and logic under Ibn al-Khammar, a Christian philosopher and physician.

• Associated with prominent scholars of his time, including Al-Tawhidi, who often mentioned him in his works.

Influences

• Greek Philosophy: Strongly influenced by Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics and Neoplatonic psychology.

• Islamic Thought: Integrated philosophical ethics with Qur’anic principles and Prophetic traditions.

• Persian and Indian Thought: Likely drew upon pre-Islamic Persian ideas about virtue and governance.

3. Main Themes of His Philosophical Thought

Ethics and Moral Philosophy

• Miskawayh’s Tahdhib al-Akhlaq is one of the earliest systematic works on ethics in the Islamic tradition.

• Defined ethics as the cultivation of virtues (justice, courage, temperance, wisdom) and the purification of the soul from vices.

• Saw the goal of ethics as achieving happiness (sa‘adah), which comes from the perfection of the soul and closeness to God.

• Believed that moral character can be trained and reformed through habit, education, and rational discipline—rejecting the view that character is entirely innate.

Psychology of the Soul

• Adopted a tripartite view of the soul (rational, irascible, and appetitive) inspired by Plato and Aristotle.

• Emphasized the rational soul’s superiority and its ability to guide the other faculties when disciplined.

• Saw the immortality of the soul as central, with its ultimate fulfillment found in knowledge and virtue rather than bodily pleasures.

Metaphysics and Cosmology

• Influenced by Neoplatonism, he described a hierarchical cosmos emanating from the First Cause (God).

• Believed that all beings strive to return to their divine source, with the human soul playing a unique role through its rational faculty.

• Though philosophical, he remained within the Islamic framework by affirming creation and divine providence.

Practical Philosophy and Politics

• • Ethics for Miskawayh was not merely personal but also social and political.

  • Advocated justice as the foundation of good governance and saw rulers as moral exemplars responsible for guiding their people.

  • Viewed friendship and social cooperation as essential for human flourishing.

History and Human Development

• In his work Tajarib al-Umam (“Experiences of Nations”), Miskawayh presented a philosophical view of history, seeing it as a moral and educational tool. He believed the study of history cultivated prudence and political wisdom.
  
  

4. Influence on His Generation and Beyond

In His Own Time

• Recognized as a pioneer of Islamic ethical philosophy.

• His works were widely read among Buyid intellectuals and discussed by contemporaries like Al-Tawhidi.

On Later Generations

• Greatly influenced later philosophers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and Ibn Miskawayh’s ethical framework shaped Islamic philosophy of morals for centuries.

• His Tahdhib al-Akhlaq was translated into Persian and became a standard manual of ethics.

• Through translations and cross-cultural exchanges, his ethical ideas contributed indirectly to medieval European scholastic discussions on virtue.

5. Major Works

• Tahdhib al-Akhlaq wa Tathir al-A‘raq (Refinement of Character and Purification of Dispositions) – His most famous ethical treatise, blending Greek philosophy with Islamic spirituality.

• Tajarib al-Umam (Experiences of Nations) – A historical chronicle covering events of the Islamic world from ancient times to his own day.

• Jawidan Khirad (Eternal Wisdom) – A collection of moral maxims and aphorisms, translated from Middle Persian into Arabic.

• Kitab al-Fawz al-Asghar (The Lesser Triumph) – A philosophical work on metaphysics and the soul.