Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328)

Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyya was a Hanbali scholar, jurist, theologian, and reformer. He is known for his fierce defense of Sunni orthodoxy, his opposition to philosophy and certain Sufi practices, and his emphasis on returning to the Qur'an and Sunnah. His thought deeply influenced later Islamic reform movements.

1. Background

Origin – Born in Harran (present-day Turkey), but his family fled to Damascus due to Mongol invasions.

Career – Ibn Taymiyya became a prominent teacher and jurist in Damascus, later facing persecution and imprisonment for his controversial legal and theological views. He lived during the Mamluk period, a time of political instability and religious pluralism.

2. Education and Influences

Teachers

• Shams al-Din al-Maqdisi: His primary teacher in hadith and Hanbali jurisprudence, who shaped his grounding in the traditional sciences.

• His father, Shihab al-Din ‘Abd al-Halim: A noted Hanbali scholar and head of the Sukkariyya school in Damascus, who provided him with his early training.

Influences

• Ahmad ibn Hanbal: Ibn Taymiyya followed the Hanbali approach of strict adherence to the Qur’an and Sunnah while rejecting excessive rationalization in theology.

• Early Salaf (the pious predecessors): Their example defined his methodology — interpreting revelation literally but without anthropomorphism or speculative excess.

• Greek and Islamic Philosophy (as opponents): He engaged deeply with the arguments of the falasifa (Islamic philosophers) and kalam theologians in order to refute them, developing his own epistemological system that reconciled reason with revelation.

3. Main Themes of His Philosophical Thought

Primacy of Revelation and the Return to the Salaf

• Ibn Taymiyya’s core conviction was that truth lies in the Qur’an, Sunnah, and the understanding of the early generations of Muslims. He rejected later innovations (bid‘a) and the influence of Greek philosophy, arguing that Islam must be interpreted through the lens of the earliest community — the salaf al-salih. This return to the sources was not mere literalism but a call for a living, reasoned faith rooted in revelation.

Reason and Revelation

• He argued that authentic reason (‘aql sahih) and sound revelation (naql sahih) can never contradict each other because both originate from God. In his magnum opus Dar’ ta‘arud al-‘aql wa al-naql (“The Reconciliation of Reason and Revelation”), he demonstrated that the apparent conflicts between rationality and scripture arise only from flawed philosophical premises or misinterpretations of revelation.

Divine Attributes and Transcendence

• Affirming all divine attributes mentioned in the Qur’an and Hadith, Ibn Taymiyya maintained that they should be accepted “without asking how” (bila kayf). This balanced approach avoided anthropomorphism while preserving the Qur’an’s direct meaning. God, for him, is utterly transcendent yet truly known through His revealed attributes.

Human Free Will and Moral Responsibility

• Ibn Taymiyya rejected both fatalism and extreme rationalist determinism. He taught that God creates human actions but grants humans genuine choice and accountability. Moral responsibility is thus preserved within divine sovereignty — a position that combined textual fidelity with rational coherence.

Society, Law, and Governance

• He believed that Shari‘a should govern all aspects of life — personal, social, and political. He criticized rulers who legislated outside divine law and argued that legitimate authority depends on justice and adherence to revelation. His political writings, such as Al-Siyasah al-Shar‘iyyah, presented governance as a sacred trust rather than a secular power.

Critique of Philosophy and Kalam

• Ibn Taymiyya rejected Aristotelian metaphysics and speculative theology for corrupting the simplicity of the faith. He developed a rational critique of logic in Al-Radd ‘ala al-Mantiqiyyin (“Refutation of the Logicians”), showing that human reason is limited and must submit to divine guidance.

Spirituality and True Sufism

• While critical of mystical excesses, he appreciated the inner dimensions of faith. He endorsed a form of Sufism rooted in the Qur’an and Sunnah, focusing on sincerity, remembrance of God (dhikr), and moral purification. For him, genuine spirituality was inseparable from orthodoxy and ethical discipline.

4. Influence on His Generation and Beyond

In His Own Time

• Ibn Taymiyya had many students, the most famous being Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, who expanded and popularized his ideas.

• His bold positions and political activism led to imprisonment multiple times, but also drew large followings.

• He challenged both the religious establishment and political authorities.

On Later Generations

• Revivalist and reformist movements in later centuries (especially from the 18th century onwards) drew heavily on his ideas.

  • Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (founder of Wahhabism) was particularly influenced by him.

• His Salafi approach continues to influence contemporary Islamic thought, especially among conservative Sunni movements.

• In modern times, he is cited both by Islamist thinkers and quietist Salafis, depending on the context.

5. Major Works

• Darʾ Taʿarud al-‘Aql wa al-Naql ("Refutation of the Conflict Between Reason and Revelation") – A multi-volume masterpiece refuting philosophical attempts to undermine or reinterpret religious texts based on reason. 

• Majmu‘ al-Fatawa (Collected Legal Opinions) – a 36-volume collection of his legal and theological rulings.

• Al-‘Aqidah al-Wasitiyyah (The Creed of the Middle Path) – a concise summary of Sunni creed in line with Salafi theology.

• Al-Siyasah al-Shar‘iyyah (Governance in Accordance with Shari‘a) – on governance and the application of Sharia law.

• Minhaj al-Sunnah al-Nabawiyyah (The Method of the Prophetic Sunnah) – a refutation of Shi‘i doctrines and the views of Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.