Ibn Rushd (1126–1198)

Abu al-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd, known in the Latin West as Averroes, was one of the greatest Muslim philosophers, jurists, and polymaths of the Islamic Golden Age. Celebrated as “The Commentator” for his extensive writings on Aristotle, he played a central role in preserving and interpreting Greek philosophy for both the Islamic world and medieval Europe. While a devoted Muslim jurist, he also sought to harmonize reason and revelation, making him one of the most influential figures in the history of philosophy.

1. Background

Origin – Ibn Rushd was born in Córdoba, in al-Andalus (modern-day Spain), during the Almohad rule.

Career – Ibn Rushd served as a qadi (judge), physician, and court philosopher in Córdoba and Marrakesh. He held prominent positions under Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf and his successor Yaqub al-Mansur. Later in life, he faced opposition from religious scholars and was temporarily exiled by the Almohad authorities before being reinstated shortly before his death.

2. Education and Influences

Teachers

• Ibn Tufayl, the famed philosopher and author of Hayy ibn Yaqzan, introduced Ibn Rushd to the Almohad court and likely mentored him in philosophical matters.

• His early education in Islamic jurisprudence, theology, and medicine was supervised by his father and grandfather, both judges.

Influences

• Aristotle: Ibn Rushd devoted his life to studying, translating, and commenting on Aristotle’s works. He sought to revive Aristotelian logic and metaphysics.

• Ibn Sina: He was familiar with Avicennian philosophy but often criticized it for deviating from the original intent of Aristotle.

• Al-Farabi: He followed Al-Farabi’s approach to logic and political philosophy.

• Ibn Tufayl: Inspired him toward synthesizing rational inquiry with religious principles.

3. Main Themes of His Philosophical Thought

Commentaries on Aristotle

• Ibn Rushd is best known for his long, middle, and short commentaries on nearly all of Aristotle’s major works.

• He aimed to restore the original Aristotelian system, distinguishing it from Neoplatonic interpretations.

• These commentaries had a massive impact on Christian and Jewish thinkers in Europe and the Middle East.

Harmony of Philosophy and Religion

• In his treatise Fasl al-Maqal (The Decisive Treatise), Ibn Rushd argued that philosophy is not only compatible with Islam but obligatory for those capable of understanding it.

• He divided people into three classes in terms of religious understanding:

  1. Philosophers, who use demonstrative reasoning.

  2. Theologians, who use dialectical arguments.

  3. The masses, who rely on rhetorical persuasion.

Theory of the Intelect

• He revived Aristotle’s view of the active intellect but also developed the idea of shared human intellect, which was controversial.

• This view—sometimes interpreted as denying personal immortality—sparked opposition among Muslim theologians and later Christian scholastics.

Critique of Theology and Mysticism

• In Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence), he responded to al-Ghazali’s critique of philosophy, defending philosophers like Ibn Sina against charges of heresy.

• He argued that theologians were less precise than philosophers in understanding metaphysical realities.

Law and Ethics

• As a judge, he wrote important works on Islamic jurisprudence (Bidayat al-Mujtahid) where he sought a rational basis for legal reasoning, allowing for multiple valid interpretations within Islamic law.

4. Influence on His Generation and Beyond

In His Own Time

• Ibn Rushd's views were largely rejected by mainstream theologians and jurists in the Islamic world.

• The Ash‘arite school, dominant in Sunni Islam, viewed his Aristotelianism with suspicion.

• However, he had some influence on later rationalist thinkers and philosophers in the Islamic East, though he never gained the same prominence there as Ibn Sina.

On Later Generations

• Ibn Rushd’s Aristotelian commentaries were translated into Latin, sparking the Averroist movement in Europe. Scholars like Thomas Aquinas, Siger of Brabant, and Moses Maimonides engaged deeply with his ideas.

• His ideas on the unity of the intellect, natural reason, and eternal universe were debated in Christian and Jewish philosophy.

• He was referred to simply as "The Commentator" by Latin scholastics for his authoritative interpretations of Aristotle.

• Ibn Rushd helped revive Greek rationalism during a period when mysticism and anti-philosophical sentiment were rising in the Islamic world.

5. Major Works

• Fasl al-Maqal (The Decisive Treatise) – Defends the harmony of philosophy and religion.

• Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence) – A rebuttal to al-Ghazali’s critique of philosophers.

• Bidayat al-Mujtahid (The Distinguished Jurist’s Primer) – A comprehensive comparative work on Islamic law.

• Kulliyat fi al-Tibb (General Principles of Medicine) – A major medical encyclopedia used for centuries.

• Aristotelian Commentaries: Extensive and systematic commentaries on nearly all of Aristotle’s works, which earned him the title “The Commentator.”