Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838–1897)

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was a Muslim political activist, philosopher, and reformer whose thought laid the groundwork for Islamic modernism and pan-Islamism in the 19th century. A powerful orator and writer, he advocated for political unity, anti-colonial resistance, and intellectual renewal in the Muslim world. His work combined Islamic thought, modern science, and rationalism in response to Western imperialism and internal stagnation.

1. Background

Origin – Born in Asadabad—either in Afghanistan or Iran (a point of scholarly debate), but he presented himself as an Afghan to emphasize Sunni unity and political neutrality.

Career – Al-Afghani traveled widely, working in Afghanistan, India, Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, Iran, and Europe. He was involved in both scholarly and political circles and was frequently expelled or exiled due to his agitation against colonial and autocratic regimes.

2. Education and Influences

Teachers

• While the historical record is murky, it is believed he studied in Qazvin, Tehran, and Najaf, gaining a traditional Islamic education in philosophy, logic, and theology. He was also well-read in European science and philosophy and may have engaged with Enlightenment thinkers through translation or European contacts.

Influences

• Islamic Philosophers: Particularly influenced by the rationalist traditions of Ibn Sina and Al-Farabi, as well as the ethical-political works of Al-Ghazali.

• Modern Western Thinkers: Familiar with the ideas of Rousseau, Voltaire, and Comte, especially concerning social reform and rationalism.

• Shi‘i and Sunni Traditions: Though his personal background may have been Shi‘i, he positioned himself as a pan-Islamic Sunni to transcend sectarianism.

• Sufism and Mysticism: He was aware of Sufi thought but tended to critique its political quietism.

3. Main Themes of His Philosophical Thought

Pan-Islamism and Muslim Unity

• Al-Afghani saw disunity among Muslims as a cause of their decline.

• He advocated for political solidarity among all Muslim nations to resist European imperialism.

• Opposed both sectarianism and nationalism when they undermined collective Muslim identity.

Rationalism and Islamic Philosophy

• Al-Afghani defended the compatibility of reason and revelation.

• He argued that Islam historically encouraged rational inquiry and scientific advancement.

• He Critiqued Muslim clerics for abandoning rationalist traditions and promoting intellectual stagnation.

Anti-Colonialism and Political Activism

• One of the earliest Muslim thinkers to link Islamic reform with anti-colonial resistance.

• He opposed British, French, and Russian imperial policies in the Muslim world.

• He criticized Muslim rulers who colluded with colonial powers or failed to implement reforms.

Reform of Religious Thought

• Al-Afghani called for reinterpretation (ijtihad) and a revival of independent reasoning in religious matters.

• He criticized blind imitation (taqlid) and stagnation in Islamic scholarship. He saw Islam as a dynamic civilization capable of renewal.

Science and Modern Knowledge

• Al-Afghani promoted the acquisition of modern sciences as essential for Muslim revival. He believed science and technology could be harmonized with Islamic principles.

• He encouraged translations, scientific education, and engagement with Western intellectual advancements.

4. Influence on His Generation and Beyond

In His Own Time

• Al-Afghani had direct influence in reformist movements in Egypt, Ottoman Turkey, Iran, and India.

• He was a mentor to Muhammad Abduh, who became Grand Mufti of Egypt and a major Islamic modernist.

• He was admired by early Arab nationalists and constitutional reformers in the Ottoman Empire and Qajar Iran.

• His writings, speeches, and journalistic activities—especially through al-‘Urwah al-Wuthqa (The Firmest Bond)—had pan-Islamic resonance.

On Later Generations

• Islamic Modernism: Inspired movements seeking to reconcile Islam with modern institutions, science, and democracy.

• Salafi Reformism: While distinct in approach, many modern Salafis drew upon his call to return to a purer, rational Islam.

• Political Islam: Seen as a forerunner of 20th-century political Islam, including thinkers like Rashid Rida and later Hasan al-Banna.

• Secular Reformers: Even some secular nationalists viewed him as a symbol of anti-colonial resistance and Muslim intellectual renewal.

• Shi‘i Thinkers: Influenced intellectuals like Ali Shariati in Iran, despite sectarian differences.

5. Major Works

• Al-Radd ‘ala al-Dahriyyin (Refutation of the Materialists) – A philosophical polemic defending Islam and metaphysical belief against atheism and positivism.

• Al-‘Urwah al-Wuthqa (The Firmest Bond) – A political and reformist journal co-edited with Muhammad Abduh, calling for Muslim unity and reform.